COVID‑19 (Coronavirus disease 2019) is a contagious disease caused by the virus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Importantly, COVID-19 transmits when infectious particles are breathed in or come…
HIV is a virus that affects the immune system. HIV infects important cells in the human immune system, such as helper T cells (especially CD4+T cells), macrophages, and dendritic cells.…
Bacteria are small single-celled organisms. Bacteria exist almost everywhere on Earth and are vital to the planet's ecosystems. Some species can live under extreme conditions of temperature and pressure. The…
Phosphodiesterase (PDE) is any enzyme that breaks a phosphodiester bond. Usually, people speaking of PDE are referring to cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase. while, the superfamily of PDE enzymes is classified into…
The proteasome is part of the main mechanism by which cells regulate specific protein concentration and degrade misfolded proteins. Specifically, ubiquitin is a key molecule known to cooperate with proteasome.…
Ikarugamycin is an antibiotic and a inhibitor of clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME). Cell surface receptors and their ligands can be internalized by some mechanistically distinct endocytic pathways. Those signal pathways include…
Some Gram-negative pathogens have accumulated enough resistance mechanisms to render them virtually untreatable by modern antibacterial chemotherapy. A mainstay for the treatment of Gram-negative infections is the β-lactam classes of…
Cancer initiation and progression are mediated through dysregulation of multiple signaling pathways. Specificity protein 1 (Sp1) is a zinc-finger transcription factor that regulates multiple cellular functions and promotes tumor progression…
Antibiotics, also known as antibacterials, are medications that destroy or slow down the growth of bacteria. Since ancient times, many civilizations used topical application of mouldy bread, with many references…
In the furnaces of the stars the elements evolved from hydrogen. When oxygen and neon captured successive α particles, the element calcium was born. Calcium ions (Ca2+) are some of…