Phosphodiesterase (PDE) is any enzyme that breaks a phosphodiester bond. Usually, people speaking of PDE are referring to cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase. while, the superfamily of PDE enzymes is classified into…
Chitinases are chitin-degrading enzymes that belong to the glycosyl hydrolase family. It includes enzymatically active chitinases and chitinase-like proteins without enzymatic activity. Mammals have two distinct genes encoding for chitinase…
c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) belong to the mitogen-activated protein kinase family and are responsive to stress stimuli. Specifically, JNKs belong to the mitogen-activated protein kinase family and respond to stress.…
Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a phospholipid growth factor that stimulates proliferation, chemotaxis, cation currents, and K+ currents in retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells. In particular, LPA is an extracellular signaling…
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a disease of progressive fibrosis and respiratory failure. Endoplasmic reticulum stress (ER stress) implicates in the pathogenesis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. ER stress activates a…
Receptor tyrosine kinases are a large family of cell surface receptors responsible for regulating cellular proliferation, differentiation, survival, metabolism, and life cycle. Discoidin domain receptors 1 and 2 (DDR1 and…
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis is an interstitial lung disease. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis commonly results in respiratory failure and death. Unfortunately, Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis is one of the most aggressive forms of…
Various types of cytokinesuchemokines react with their receptors. They transduce extracellular signals into intracellular response through a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling cascade. Furthermore, p38 MAPK signalling might play an…
Fibrosis is a formation of excess fibrous connective tissue in body, similar to scarring. They are involved in stimulated fibroblasts depositing connective tissue. Fibrosis occurs in various tissues of the…
Pulmonary fibrosis is a progressive and lethal lung disease. This disease is characterized by fibroblasts proliferation and the deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) materials. Mechanically, it usually leads to collagen…