G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) is a complete membrane protein, which is used by cells to convert extracellular signals into intracellular reactions. This includes the response to hormones and neurotransmitters, as…
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Symptoms typically include fever, cough, headache, fatigue, difficulty breathing, and loss of smell…
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a member of the hepatitis virus family. Specifically, the virus consists of an outer lipid envelope and an icosahedral nucleocapsid core. The nucleocapsid contains viral…
The highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) can transform the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection into a manageable chronic disease in a little over a decade. The combination of antiretroviral drugs…
Coronaviruses (CoV) are large plus-strand RNA viruses. They cause medical disorders such as the common cold, lower respiratory tract infections, and diarrhea. The SARS-CoV genome encodes a large polyprotein. Two…
Hepatitis B is a serious infectious disease of the human liver caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). Meanwhile, HBV infection often becomes chronic. It results in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).…
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection leads to depletion of the immune dysfunction. Thereby results in immunodeficiency and vulnerability to opportunistic infections. As we all know, in the past…
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are type I membrane glycoproteins. They contain intracellular Toll–IL-1 receptor homology (TIR) domains. TLRs recognize a wide range of ligands including lipopolysaccharide, double-stranded RNA and lipoprotein. TLRs…
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a major cause of chronic liver disease and associated morbidity and mortality worldwide. HCV associates with an increased incidence of liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and…
Chronic hepatitis C (CHC) virus infection continues to be a significant health burden, and 2–3% of the global population infected by the hepatitis C virus (HCV). The innate immune response…